Second Language Writing
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Second language writing is the study of
writing Writing is a medium of human communication which involves the representation of a language through a system of physically Epigraphy, inscribed, Printing press, mechanically transferred, or Word processor, digitally represented Symbols (semiot ...
performed by non-native speakers/writers of a language as a second or
foreign language A foreign language is a language that is not an official language of, nor typically spoken in, a given country, and that native speakers from that country must usually acquire through conscious learning - be this through language lessons at schoo ...
. In addition to disseminating research through the ''
Journal of Second Language Writing The ''Journal of Second Language Writing'' is a peer-reviewed academic journal in the fields of linguistics and language education. Its scope encompasses all aspects of second and foreign language writing, including writing instruction and assess ...
'', scholars in the field regularly participate in three academic conferences, the Symposium on Second Language Writing, the TESOL convention, and the Conference on College Composition and
Communication Communication (from la, communicare, meaning "to share" or "to be in relation with") is usually defined as the transmission of information. The term may also refer to the message communicated through such transmissions or the field of inquir ...
.


History

Before the 1960s, the focus of
English language teaching Teaching English as a second language (TESL) or Teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) are terms that refer to teaching English to students whose first language is not English. The terms TESL, TEFL, and TESOL distinguish betwee ...
was on producing or preparing graduates of ESL schools who successfully can pass
citizenship tests Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and ...
to be able to work. During industrialization the most needed skills were reading and speaking skills. Although immigrants struggled with writing in their second language, it was not the necessary skill needed by the industrialization at that time. Scholars at that time, mostly phoneticians, argued that spoken language should be placed over written language and
phonetics Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds, or in the case of sign languages, the equivalent aspects of sign. Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are phoneticians. ...
should serve as the basis for language learning. Based on Skinnerian Behaviorism (1957), the
audio-lingual method The audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key,Wilfried Decoo,. ''Speech'' November 8, 2001. is a method used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this cas ...
came about in language teaching after
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. The audio-lingual method was initially focused on teaching speaking skills. According to Leki (1992), writing was taught in ESL classes as a component of a second language teaching. However, writing does not mean “to create, to express ideas, to synthesize information, to explore thoughts”. Even US higher education institutions had to send international students to high schools to be prepared until they met university academic writing demands because universities did not have any courses for preparing L2 students for preparing to meet the right language proficiency levels needed to function at US universities. In the U.S., writing received greater attention after a large number of students' enrollment in the US universities in the 1960s. This meant that not only teaching reading and speaking skills were important as they were needed for working during the industrialization, but teaching a language required also writing as international students could function in American universities. During this period, postsecondary institutions could no longer ignore the difficulties L2 writers faced as the number of international students increased 4 times more in 1950 compared to 1940 and all freshman students had to take first year composition courses. Specialists had to design courses for L2 writers that were considered as remedial courses in some universities while other institutions credited these courses. To solve the challenges L2 writers encounter, both "composition teachers" and "ESL teachers" attended the meeting organized by
Conference on College Composition and Communication The Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC, often referred to as "Four Cs") is a national professional association of college and university writing instructors in the United States. Formed in 1949 as an organization within t ...
(CCCC) established in 1949 as a forum for specialists in the field of composition. Specialists and educators discussed the materials that needed to be used for teaching L2 writing instruction, and ESL specialists suggested using materials designed by Michigan English Language Institute (ELI). Michigan ELI was the first language teaching institute founded to teach English to Spanish language speakers, and the institute also provided courses for teaching ESL. Second language writing issues were considered both by composition and ESL teachers at the conference. After Michigan ELI and other institutions started preparing ESL teaching specialists, second language teachers argued that second language learners should be taught only by ESL specialists. Also, in 1966,
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages TESOL International Association, formerly Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, is the largest professional organization for teachers of English as a second or foreign language. It was founded in 1966, and is based in Alexandria, Virg ...
(TESOL), a new organization was established to serve L2 specialists' needs. As a result,
composition studies Composition studies (also referred to as composition and rhetoric, rhetoric and composition, writing studies, or simply composition) is the professional field of writing, research, and instruction, focusing especially on writing at the college leve ...
acquired two components: “L1” and “L2 writing” that lead to the establishment of second language writing as a separate discipline that falls under TESOL.


Perspectives and theories

Second language writing development has been investigated from many different perspectives. Manchón's edited book on ''L2 Writing Development: Multiple Perspectives'' provides an insight in which perspective second language writing development can be investigated. Her edited books includes studies on L2 writing development from
dynamic systems theory Dynamical systems theory is an area of mathematics used to describe the behavior of complex dynamical systems, usually by employing differential equations or difference equations. When differential equations are employed, the theory is called ''c ...
,
goal theory Goal theory is the label used in educational psychology to discuss research into motivation to learn. Goals of learning are thought to be a key factor influencing the level of a student's intrinsic motivation Motivation is the reason for which ...
, genre-based
systemic functional linguistics # * Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) is an approach to linguistics, among functional linguistics Functional linguistics is an approach to the study of language characterized by taking systematically into account the speaker's and the hea ...
, and rhetorical genre theory. Second language writing development has been most extensively investigated by traditional
cross-sectional Cross-sectional data, or a cross section of a study population, in statistics and econometrics, is a type of data collected by observing many subjects (such as individuals, firms, countries, or regions) at the one point or period of time. The analy ...
methodologies such as pre-test post-test designs. However, in the early 2000s a novel angle has emerged called
dynamical systems theory Dynamical systems theory is an area of mathematics used to describe the behavior of complex dynamical systems, usually by employing differential equations or difference equations. When differential equations are employed, the theory is called ' ...
approach on
second language development Complex Dynamic Systems Theory in the field of linguistics is a perspective and approach to the study of second, third and additional language acquisition. The general term Complex Dynamic Systems Theory was recommended by Kees de Bot to refer to b ...
. Studies adopting the DST perspective explore interactions between different constructs such as lexicon, syntax, and accuracy by using moving correlations. The degree of variability in the constructs is usually explored by min-max graphs, data resampling and Monte Carlo Analysis. Among the researchers who have adopted this new angle are Verspoor, de Bot, and
Lowie Lowie is a surname and a given name. Notable people with the name include: Surname *Jules Lowie (1913–1960), Belgian racing cyclist *Robert Lowie (1883–1957), Austrian-born American anthropologist *Wander Lowie Wander Marius Lowie (born 14 Oc ...
. These researchers used a
time-series In mathematics, a time series is a series of data points indexed (or listed or graphed) in time order. Most commonly, a time series is a sequence taken at successive equally spaced points in time. Thus it is a sequence of discrete-time data. Exa ...
data to investigate development in second language writing.


Symposium on Second Language Writing

The Symposium on Second Language Writing, which began in 1998 at
Purdue University Purdue University is a public land-grant research university in West Lafayette, Indiana, and the flagship campus of the Purdue University system. The university was founded in 1869 after Lafayette businessman John Purdue donated land and money ...
, is an international conference on second language writing. It was a biennial event through 2006, and annual after that. It has been hosted at Purdue University six times, but the 2007 symposium was held in Japan; the 2009 at
Arizona State University Arizona State University (Arizona State or ASU) is a public research university in the Phoenix metropolitan area. Founded in 1885 by the 13th Arizona Territorial Legislature, ASU is one of the largest public universities by enrollment in the ...
, the 2010 in
Murcia Murcia (, , ) is a city in south-eastern Spain, the capital and most populous city of the autonomous community of the Region of Murcia, and the seventh largest city in the country. It has a population of 460,349 inhabitants in 2021 (about one ...
, Spain; the 2011 in
Taipei Taipei (), officially Taipei City, is the capital and a special municipality of the Republic of China (Taiwan). Located in Northern Taiwan, Taipei City is an enclave of the municipality of New Taipei City that sits about southwest of the n ...
, Taiwan; and the 2013 will be held at
Shandong University Shandong University (, abbreviated as Shanda, , English abbreviation SDU) is a public research comprehensive university in Jinan, Shandong with one campus in Weihai, Shandong and one campus in Qingdao, Shandong and is supported directly by the ...
,
Jinan Jinan (), Postal Map Romanization, alternately romanization of Chinese, romanized as Tsinan, is the Capital (political), capital of Shandong province in East China, Eastern China. With a population of 9.2 million, it is the second-largest city i ...
, China.


At TESOL, Inc.

In June 2005, the TESOL Board added of a new interest section on writing. The Second Language Writing IS; it held its first meeting in
Tampa Tampa () is a city on the Gulf Coast of the U.S. state of Florida. The city's borders include the north shore of Tampa Bay and the east shore of Old Tampa Bay. Tampa is the largest city in the Tampa Bay area and the seat of Hillsborough County ...
in March 2006, covering topics ranging from "Broadening Perspectives in Second Language Writing" and "Alternative Placement Methods for Second Language Writers" to "Issues in Technologies for L2 Composition Classrooms" and "Crossing Bridges with Second Language Writing Partnerships." As these suggest, the section provides a forum for researchers and educators at different
grade Grade most commonly refers to: * Grade (education), a measurement of a student's performance * Grade, the number of the year a student has reached in a given educational stage * Grade (slope), the steepness of a slope Grade or grading may also ref ...
levels and institutional settings to discuss second language writing. Specifically, the section's goals are: * to increase awareness of the significance of writing in teaching
ESL English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EFL ...
/EFL, * to encourage and support the teaching of writing to ESOL students at all levels, * to provide a forum to discuss issues of writing
assessment Assessment may refer to: Healthcare *Health assessment, identifies needs of the patient and how those needs will be addressed *Nursing assessment, gathering information about a patient's physiological, psychological, sociological, and spiritual s ...
and the placement of second language writers, and * to disseminate and promote research on second language writing The section facilitates communication about writing across teaching levels and settings. Recent research on the scope of second language writing scholarship suggests that most of the field's nationally (within the U.S.) and internationally circulated scholarship is produced by scholars in post-secondary education at research intensive institutions. Other contexts for writing (Pre-K through 12, two-year colleges, community programs, international
K-12 K-1 is a professional kickboxing promotion established in 1993, well known worldwide mainly for its heavyweight division fights and Grand Prix tournaments. In January 2012, K-1 Global Holdings Limited, a company registered in Hong Kong, acquired ...
schools, etc.) often have much larger populations of ELL/EFL writers, but scholars, particularly teacher-researchers, in these settings do not often receive support for researching and writing. Given this, the section provides scholars with the opportunity to initiate more research and scholarship in these underrepresented contexts by supporting new collaborations and partnerships across levels and by providing a forum for discussing shared experiences. The section, like its parent body, TESOL, is distinctive in including all the academic levels and areas.


Second Language Writing Transfer (L2) Theory

Some notable scholars in the field of Second Language (L2) writing transfer include Mark Andrew James and GitaDasBender. First, Depalma and Ringer (2011) define how L2 writing
transfer Transfer may refer to: Arts and media * ''Transfer'' (2010 film), a German science-fiction movie directed by Damir Lukacevic and starring Zana Marjanović * ''Transfer'' (1966 film), a short film * ''Transfer'' (journal), in management studies ...
was only defined as individuals reusing previous writing knowledge from one context to another in a second language context.DePalma, M. J., & Ringer, J. M. (2011). Toward a theory of adaptive transfer: Expanding disciplinary discussions of “ transfer” in second-language writing and composition studies. ''Journal of Second Language Writing'', ''20''(2), 134–147. In particular, there are two examples outlined by James (2018b) of when L2 writing transfer may occur.James, M. A. (2018b). Transfer. In J. I. Lionas (Ed.), ''The TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching'' (pp. 1–5). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. First, it possibly occurs when students are taught a certain organizational structure to follow in one
ESL English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EFL ...
writing classroom and possibly utilize this structure in another one. Second, it can "occur" when teachers teach L2 writers certain steps on writing and revising essays and L2 writers may incorporate these "steps" on future assignments. However, DePalma and Ringer (2011) advocate for the concept of adaptive transfer where L2 writers might "consciously" readapt or reuse previous writing knowledge from one context to another giving L2 writers more "agency" over their writing. It is important to note that Grujicic-Alatriste (2013) critiques their piece because she states that people have to possibly factor in the overall classroom experience to determine how much adaptive transfer has occurred. James (2018b) notes that previous L2 experiences could affect L2 writing in newer situations as he highlights that helping students understand the similarities between writing contexts could help the transfer process.James, M. A. (2018b). Transfer. In J. I. Lionas (Ed.), ''The TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching'' (pp. 1–5). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. However, he mentions that transfer does not always occur and instructors have to reflect on lessons that give L2 writers the motivation to engage in L2 writing transfer. Thus, the goal of L2 writing education is to encourage positive transfer even though transfer between languages are often portrayed in a negative context and may discourage it (James, 2018a). James (2009) discusses how ESL writing classrooms in universities play a major role, consciously or unconsciously, in helping students learn things that they also use in other classes.James, M. A. (2009). "Far" transfer of learning outcomes from an ESL writing course: Can the gap be bridged? ''Journal of Second Language Writing'', ''18''(2), 69-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2009.01.001 Cui (2019) argues that further studies need to be conducted on how "first-year L2 writers in US universities transfer writing knowledge". DasBender (2016) discusses how these L2 first-year writers face a lot of "different expectations" that they are expected to meet because "different colleges and writing classrooms are going to handle the needs of these writers".DasBender, G. (2016). Liminal space as a generative site of struggle: Writing transfer and L2 students. In C. M. Anson & J. L. Moore (Eds.), ''Critical Transitions: Writing and the Question of Transfer'' (pp. 273–298). University Press of Colorado. This is reinforced by James (2009) who states that there is a significant difference in the types of writing that are produced in ESL writing courses compared to other kinds of writing in other academic disciplines in US universities. Thus, Gita DasBender mentions that the previous experiences of three writers may impede their efforts to conform to first-year writing standards even those geared towards ESL writers.For example, she notes that a good number of L2 writers have to deal with another language like English to communciate and are not as familiar with analysis. Therefore, she indicates that teachers can review concepts that are difficult for L2 writers including organization, audience awareness, and genres in order to help them master and learn more about their writing. Furthermore, she notes that teachers can give these writers reflection activities to help these students ponder what previous writing experiences they have through to help build metacognition because she is unsure if students would even attempt to do so without motivation from teachers.


At the Conference on College Composition and Communication

Second language writing scholars also participate in a Special Interest Group on the field at the Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC). In addition, the organization has a Committee on Second Language Writing to bridge work between CCCC and TESOL to involve more scholars in the field's discussions. Much recent attention focuses on the potential of
computer-mediated communication Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is defined as any human communication that occurs through the use of two or more electronic devices. While the term has traditionally referred to those communications that occur via computer-mediated formats ...
(CMC) to foster desire and opportunity to write. In addition, attention has been focused on the practical application of teaching Second Language writing not only in academia but in the field.


Notable researchers

The following is a list of researchers who contributed to the field of second language writing research. * Dwight Atkinson * Christine Pearson Casanave * Scott Crossley *
Alister Cumming Alister Henry Cumming (born 1953) is a Canadian linguist. He is currently a professor emeritus at the University of Toronto. He is most noted for early studies of composing processes in a second language in the 1980s, establishing that writing sk ...
* Dana Ferris *
Ken Hyland Ken Hyland is a British linguist. He is currently a professor of applied linguistics in education at the University of East Anglia. Hyland is an applied linguist in the field of academic discourse, second language writing, and English for Acade ...
* Icy Lee * Ilona Leki *
Rosa Manchón Rosa María Manchón Ruiz (born 1957) is a Spanish linguist. She is currently a professor of applied linguistics at the University of Murcia, Spain. Her research focuses on second language acquisition and second language writing. She was the edi ...
* Paul Kei Matsuda *
Lourdes Ortega Lourdes Ortega (born 1962) is a Spanish-born American linguist. She is currently a professor of applied linguistics at Georgetown University. Her research focuses on second language acquisition and second language writing. She is noted for her ...
*
Charlene Polio Charlene Polio (born 1961) is an American linguist. She is currently a professor in the Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures at Michigan State University, The United States. Her research focuses on second language acquisition with a ...
* Tony J. Silva * Neomy Storch * Christine Tardy *
Marjolijn Verspoor Marjolijn Verspoor (born 1952) is a Dutch linguist. She is a professor of English language and English as a second language at the University of Groningen, Netherlands. She is known for her work on Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and the applicati ...


Computer programs

Second language writing research uses different computational tools to investigate development. For example: *
Coh-Metrix Coh-Metrix is a computational tool that produces indices of the linguistic and discourse representations of a text. Developed by Arthur C. Graesser and Danielle S. McNamara, Coh-Metrix analyzes texts on many different features. Measurements Coh-M ...
*
L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer L2 Syntactical Complexity Analyzer (L2SCA) developed by Xiaofei Lu at the Pennsylvania State University, is a computational tool which produces syntactic complexity indices of written English language texts. Along with Coh-Metrix, the L2SCA is one ...


See also

*
Second language acquisition Second-language acquisition (SLA), sometimes called second-language learning — otherwise referred to as L2 (language 2) acquisition, is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition is also the scientific dis ...
*
Second language development Complex Dynamic Systems Theory in the field of linguistics is a perspective and approach to the study of second, third and additional language acquisition. The general term Complex Dynamic Systems Theory was recommended by Kees de Bot to refer to b ...
*
English as a Foreign or Second Language English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EF ...
*
Contrastive rhetoric Contrastive rhetoric is the study of how a person's first language and his or her culture influence writing in a second language or how a common language is used among different cultures. The term was first coined by the American applied linguist ...
* Exophony


References


External links


Journal of Second Language WritingSymposium on Second Language Writing
{{SLA topics Language acquisition Writing Exophony Composition (language)